Narrator

According to the Britannica Encyclopedia, a narrator is defined as “one who tells a story. In a work of fiction, the narrator determines the story’s point of view.” The narrator delivers information about the plot to the reader. Narrators can also be categorized by the way that they present their story. An intrusive narrator interrupts the story and provides general commentary to the reader on some aspect of the story. An unreliable narrator is one who intentionally or unintentionally tells events in distorted way. There are are also different types of narrators. A story that is told by a full participant in the story’s action is a first person person. Finally, an observer narrator tells the events of a story in either first or third person, but is not a major character and had limited knowledge/perspective of an individual.

Caleb Williams is the sole narrator is Godwin’s book Things as They Are; or, The Adventures of Caleb Williams. In the first paragraph of chapter one, first volume, Caleb says “My story will, at least, appear to have that consistency which is seldom attendant but upon truth.” He claims that a consistent and coherent story will reveal the truth and that his story will do that. This also shows that Caleb will be narrating the book. This is important because it reveals that he will be the only one telling the story, even though he gets some information from other sources, like Mr. Collins.

Narrator is directly related to term unreliable narrator. This is because unreliable narrator is a type of narrator. Caleb Williams is both a narrator and and unreliable narrator. Narrator is also related to the the term Narrative.

References:

1. Godwin, William. Things as they are, or, The adventures of Caleb Williams. Printed for B. Crosby, 1794.
2. The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “Narrator.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 14 Feb. 2017, www.britannica.com/art/narrator.

Metaphor 

Metaphor is a kind of figurative language.  Metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two things that are unrelated.  They help to create a different way of seeing things.  Similarities of two different objects is made based on common characteristics.  There are two parts to a metaphor, a vehicle and a tenor.  The tenor is what you are trying to describe in the metaphor.  It is the subject of the metaphor.  The vehicle is what is used to change the subject into something new.  Metaphors are an integral part of literary works and are used in poetry, literature, or in everyday conversations.

An example of a metaphor in Paradise Lost is when Milton is describing Satan.

“As when a prowling wolf,

Whom hunger drives to seek new haunt for prey,

Watching where shepherds pen their flocks at eve,

In hurdled cotes amid the field secure,

Leaps o’er the fence with ease into the fold;

Or as a thief, bent to unhoard the cash

Of some rich burgher, whose substantial doors,

Cross-barred and bolted fast, fear no assault”

Here Milton is trying to create a visual pictures using metaphors such as prowling wolf whom hunger drives to seek new haunt for prey.  He is comparing Satan to wolf and a thief in these lines.  Milton is comparing the thirst of Satan to devour man to that of a hungry wolf on the hunt for prey.

Resources

“Imagery.”  Literary Devices: Definition and Examples of Literary Terms.                                      https://literarydevices.net/imagery/.  Accessed 12 Feb 2018.

“Homeric Metahors.”  http://www.umich.edu/~homeros/ Representations%20of%20Homer%27s%20Ideas/Homeric%20Metaphors.htm.  Accessed 12 Feb 2018.

Imagery

Imagery is the use of visually figurative or descriptive languages to symbolize objects and ideas.  Imagery uses certain words to generate a visual depiction in our minds.  In order to be effective in literary work, imagery  needs to be used in conjunction with similes, metaphors, and symbolism.  A crucial part of literature is imagery, it is especially important in poetry.”

An example of imagery in Paradise Lost is Milton’s description of Hell through Satan’s point of view.

“At once, as far as Angels ken, he views

the dismal situation waste and wild

A dungeon horrible, on all sides round,

As one great furnace flamed: yet from those flames

No light: but rather darkness visible

Served only to discover sights of woe”

The words dungeon and flames visual images that help the reader create a picture in their mind about Hell.

Resources

“Imagery.”  Literary Devices: Definition and Examples of Literary Terms.                                      https://literarydevices.net/imagery/.  Accessed 12 Feb 2018.

Luxon, Thomas H.  The John Milton Reading Room Paradise Lost.  Dartmouth College.

https://dartmouth.edu/~milton/reading_room/contents/text.shtml.  Accessed 12 Feb 2018.

Canon

The Literary canon refers to a group of texts that elite scholars have decided to be most relevant to society and that should be read by each individual (Lombardi, 2018). These texts are generally deemed as such due to various hermeneutical interpretations with which they are associated, that bring out a greater meaning which the scholars of the time view important. Due to changing times and societies, those texts which are defined as canonical and non-canonical frequently change (Lombardi, 2018). For example, historically, clergymen would establish biblical texts (and text with similar principles) as the literary canon because they agreed with their religious and moral views (Bates, 2013). However, any text that questioned or disputed their views would likely be considered non-canonical, if not blasphemous. On the other hand, a more recent literary canon may instead establish a very different set of texts that represent a more progressive view. For example, To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee, may be considered a part of modern literary canon in how it brings to light the existence of social inequalities. By marking Lee’s novel as literary canon, modern scholars can accentuate the necessity for society to realize such inequalities and to further resolve them.

In his work Why Milton Matters, A New Preface to His Writing, Joseph Wittreich makes the argument that John Milton’s Paradise Lost qualifies to be recognized as literary canon. Wittreich makes this argument on the grounds that Milton’s unique, contradictory style of writing, brings to debate a plethora of progressive topics and is therefore necessary to be read by members of society to solve such issues. For example, if Paradise Lost is established as literary canon, then contradictory feminist and masculine hermeneutics may spark debates of equality and therefore allow for society to overcome its sexist past.

Canon may be related to hermeneutics in how it is through the analysis of various interpretations that texts may be established as canon by the scholars of the time. When such hermeneutics fit in with the scholarly perspective and bring out an impactful meaning, scholars may establish a certain text as being a literary canon.

References

1. Lombardi, Esther. “What Is the Canon in Literature?” ThoughtCo, Feb. 1, 2018, thoughtco.com/literary-devices-canon-740503.
2. Bates, Jordan. “Literary canons exclude work no matter how selective canon makers are”, The Daily Nebraskan, April 25, 2013, www.dailynebraskan.com/arts_and_entertainment/literary-canons-exclude-works-no-matter-how-selective-canon-makers/article_da83def2-ad43-11e2-b07a-0019bb30f31a.html

Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics is defined as the branch of knowledge that deals with the theoretical and methodological aspects of interpretation. Hermeneutics may be applicable to a variety of contexts including ancient/biblical text, literature, and philosophy; especially in dealing with those texts which are far removed from common communication and understanding (Audi, 1999). As an analysis of interpretation, hermeneutics offers a set of rules for dissecting and understanding the interpretations of biblical and literary texts and helps provide insight into the meaning their authors were trying to bring to light (Mantzavinos, 2016). Traditionally, hermeneutics has been employed in interpreting biblical literature via four major types of hermeneutics: the literal, moral, allegorical, and analogical (Britannica). Literal hermeneutics focus on the idea that scripture itself should be interpreted “according to the plain meaning” and are often associated with the belief that biblical verbiage is divine (Britannica). Moral hermeneutics assert that biblical text should be interpreted through ethical lessons which may be drawn out of the scriptural text (Britannica). Allegorical hermeneutics follow that scripture should be interpreted as referencing a greater meaning beyond that which is superficially portrayed within the writings (Britannica). Finally, analogical hermeneutics subscribe to a “mystical interpretation” in which its principles suggest that biblical texts foreshadow the future (Britannica).

As John Milton’s Paradise Lost is a reiteration of the Bible, many of these hermeneutical categories may be considered through it. For example, Literal hermeneutics may be applied to Paradise lost according to the principle that Milton’s text should be interpreted literally as a historical account of the Fall. Therefore, such a theology would likely contend that there actually exists a physical bridge to Hell on which demons travel to plague humanity. From the perspective of moral hermeneutics, one may interpret Paradise Lost according to its ethical stance on Satan’s actions and his resulting punishments. Through such a standpoint, it may be seen that Milton’s intended interpretation of Paradise Lost was to accentuate Satan’s hubris and arrogance and the ethical ramifications of his devious actions that ultimately led him to suffering. Following Joseph Wittreich’s analysis, Paradise Lost may be considered through allegorical hermeneutics in how Milton may have written his poem as an allegory of his surrounding, seventeenth century, society. In particular, Wittreich brings to mind the competing feminist and masculinist hermeneutics in Milton’s poem in how Milton’s contradictory language may support an either feminist or masculinist interpretation; which themselves represent the debates of the time. Finally, analogical hermeneutics would likely focus on Milton’s foreshadowing phrases regarding redemption and would form interpretations about how mankind would bruise Satan’s head and Satan bruise man’s heel.

Hermeneutics may be related to literary canon in how those literary works that are deemed essential and influential for a particular time, are classified as such through hermeneutical interpretation. By being thoroughly analyzed for their meanings and interpretations, works of literature that stand out with impactful interpretations may be categorized as literary canon.

References:

1. Audi, Robert. The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 377. (1999).
2. Mantzavinos, C., “Hermeneutics”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/hermeneutics/>.
3. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Hermeneutics”. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopaedia Britannica, inc, www.britannica.com/topic/hermeneutics-principles-of-biblical-interpretation